This first edition was also the first time fire patterns were organized into one document. This production of incomplete combustion byproducts is exacerbated in poorly ventilated spaces, ventilation-controlled burning regimes and combustion of fuels that under normal atmospheric conditions have high soot yields (e.g. Sides that are wider at the bottom and slope upward to the center of the hole are from below (NFPA 2014). walls) in the form of a funnel or cone with the vertex at the bottom. The natural convection drives air out of the compartment creating a lower pressure for inflow to be driven from gravity flows or can also be influenced by wind or other mechanically induced flows (e.g. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. However, if the fire pattern is incorrectly assigned as a plume generated pattern, then the entire origin hypothesis will most likely be incorrect (Carman 2008). The studies demonstrated that the following causes could result in damage similar to irregular floor patterns, including: fires from interstitial space below the floor decking, melting plastics, draperies, furniture items, ventilation path and radiant heat from fully developed fires. 2003). 1. 2010). 2003). Heat fluxes to the walls inside a compartment containing an upper gas layer have been reported to range between 5 and 40kW/m2, based on varying temperatures between 200 and 600C (Tanaka et al. Fire Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA, NFPA (2004) NFPA 921-Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigation. Fire and Materials 5(3):130141, Thomas I, Bennets I (1999) Fires in Enclosures with Single Ventilation Openings Comparison of Long and Wide Enclosure, Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium, Thomas P, Heslden J (1972) Fully Developed Fires in Single Compartments, A Co-operative Research Program of the Conseil International du Batimen (CIB Report No. Particulates and aerosols are commonly deposited on the wall and ceiling surface where the upper layer interacted with the lining surface (NFPA 2014). In this study, experimental samples of gypsum wallboard were exposed to various heat fluxes at varying durations using the ASTM E1354, Cone Calorimeter radiant heater. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. (USA), Carman S (2008) Burn Pattern Development in Post-Flashover Fires. The effects that remain after a fire are typically related to the damage resulting from the cumulative heat flux received by an exposed material. However, the visible and measurable observations used in identifying the varying degree of charring have had many misconceptions. As mentioned before, if the magnitude of damage is changing, but the lines of demarcation are related, then a pattern may still exist. The following keywords were used for the literature review, including: fire patterns, fire effects, fire investigation, arson investigation, burn patterns and burn indicators. In 2003, ten full-scale test burns were performed in a ISO 9705 room 12ft by 12ft with 8ft ceiling heights (3.6m3.6m2.4m) with a primary focus on examining television sets and electronic appliances exposed to a full-scale room fire (Hoffmann et al. The room burns produced patterns that were both consistent with the origin as well as burn patterns and V-patterns that were inconsistent with the origin. Processes that identify thresholds needed for fire patterns to be identified can be better defined through experimental work or pattern recognition studies. Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. Gregory E Gorbett. No literature exists that defines methods on how to identify a fire pattern from a cluster of damage. Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium, Elsevier Applied Science, New York, pp 657667, Wolfe A, Mealy C, Gottuk D (2009) Fire Dynamics and Forensic Analysis of Limited Ventilation Compartment Fires Volume 1: Experimental. These factors included the location of water application, duration of fire burning prior to arrival, duration required to extinguish the fire, location of fire department entry, method of extinguishment, use of positive pressure ventilation (i.e. In 1997 The United States Fire Administration (USFA), in conjunction with the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory (NIST-BFRL) launched the fire pattern research committee and produced the USFA Fire Pattern Test report (Shanley et al. Investigation Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy P, Hopkins R, Kennedy K (2003) Depth of Calcination Measurement in Fire Origin Analysis. wood chair) and the pyrolyzates (unburned fuel) will burn in locations near ventilation openings and along airflow paths when sufficient oxygen for combustion exists (Custer and Wright 1984; Shanley et al. 1980; Keith and Smith 1984; King 1985; Ettling 1990). The fundamental items within the definition that may assist in better defining the term fire pattern is that patterns are something that happens in regular and repeated ways with characteristic features. Match. The production increases substantially as the compartment fire becomes ventilation-limited. A visible degree of fire damage scale (DOFD) was developed for gypsum wallboard and was shown to decrease variability in novices ranking varying degrees of fire damage across a wall surface (Gorbett et al. Assessing the historical and current semantics of the fire investigation literature, the use of fire patterns to determine an area of origin, for purposes of the current paper, can be grouped into four areas of literature that need to be reviewed, including: Assessing the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents (i.e. Gottuk (1992) reports sustained external burning occurring at values around 1.4 +/0.4, but other research has reported extension of flames outside the compartment starting at values of 0.7 (Wieczorek et al. As used here, decision frameworks, tools or methods encompass any mechanism used to support the systematic identification and assessment of information deemed important to a decision, ranging from checklists to structured problem-diagnostic tools such as fault trees, event trees or decision trees, to computationally supported decision analysis tools. They further confirmed the NFPA 921s and Mann and Putaansuus progressive visible damage to the surface of the gypsum wallboard. National Institute of Justice, Report 60400, Washington D.C. (USA), Qian C, Saito K (1992) Fire-Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. It can be argued that this study was the nearest any of the methods have come to being testing for reliability or validity (Fig. For more information on this term, see the interFIRE VR Resource File . All processes used for origin determination should undergo reliability and validity testing (Gorbett 2015). First, during fuel-controlled conditions ventilation has been shown to cause the fire plume to lean away from the source of ventilation due to momentum flows from the inflow, thus influencing the truncated cone shape (Shanley et al. Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Technology Report 828, Heskestad G (2008) Fire Plumes, Flame Height and Air Entrainment. Thus, the lining materials for the walls, ceiling and floor, as well as the various materials that make up the contents within the compartment, are damaged by this exposure to the products of combustion. The higher temperatures and higher velocities of smoke cause greater collection of soot deposits to form in certain locations within the compartment. Putorti reported, comparisons of the conditions of the rooms and furnishings after the experiments resulted in the determination of several similarities, as well as many differences, between experiments with the same method of ignition (Putorti 1997). It is suggested from this literature review that the overall reasoning process for evaluating fire damage for determining an area of origin consists of the following seven steps (Gorbett 2015): Identifying the value in further analysis of a surface or compartment; Identification of the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents; Identifying clusters and trends of damage (fire patterns); Interpreting the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns; Testing the hypothetical area(s) of origin; and. In the fire investigation profession, testing to determine whether the first burning object can ignite a secondary object is paramount to hypothesis testing of an area of origin. The inverted cone or triangular pattern resembles an upright triangle with the vertex at the top. This study provides an understanding of the fire risk of building's exterior wall geometry design at different altitudes. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Biedermann A, Taroni F, Delemont O, Semadeni C, Davison A (2004) The evaluation of evidence in the forensic investigation of fire incidents (Part I): an approach using Bayesian networks. %PDF-1.5 % Part of The Schroeder study (1999), however, was the first to quantify the depth of calcination and its relationship within fire investigations. The conclusion reached by the researchers was that it would appear that the major conclusion which can be drawn from this study is that ventilation conditions in the early stages of a fire can cause an anomalous fire spread, thus giving a false impression as to the point of origin (Custer and Wright 1984). The compartments were of frame construction with unfinished wood lining the interior of the compartment. More validity and reliability studies are required for these methods. 2004). 2013). The velocity of this air inflow also influences this mixing. Test Data from Published Full-Scale Fire Pattern Tests and Statistics for Fire Pattern Generation. (2013). In the United Kingdom the use of fire patterns can be found within the literature, though, they tended to discuss these as directional signposts where the heat flow will cause asymmetric effects within the building (Cooke and Ide 1985). NUREG-0492, Von Winterfeldt D, Edwards W (1986) Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research. Most investigators in the field do not cut out pieces of the wallboard to visibly identify damage, nor do they perform depth surveys using a depth tool. The open window was 3ft by 3ft (0.91m0.91m) with a sill of 2ft (0.61m) that was directly across the room from the doorway that was 3ft by 6ft (0.91m1.83m). 736, Thomas P (1981) Testing products and materials for their contribution to flashover in rooms. The most important finding from these tests is that the interpretation of all fire effects provides substantial evidence for the investigator to identify the correct area of origin (Gorbett et al. In the first edition of NFPA (1992) the investigator was cautioned, that no specific time of burning can be determined based solely upon depth of char. (2013) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests. Fire Safety Science 9:13411352, Jarman K, Kreuzer-Martin H, Wunschel D, Valentine N, Cliff J, Petersen C, Colburn H, Wahl K (2008) Bayesian-integrated microbial forensics. Location and elevation are essentially further describing proximity. However, most of these documents also cautioned against relying solely on the use of visible observations and encouraged the investigator to take samples of fire debris for analysis. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington D.C. (USA), Smith F (1983) Gasoline Detection in Hardwood Parquet Flooring Six Days After Total Burnout. Fire Clues: Heat Shadows - Occur when heavy furniture shields part of a wall; can help determine the origin point. Correct determination of the origin depends on the correct. ATF, Ammendale, MD, Pattern (2015) Merriam Webster Dictionary. Currently, investigators have no reliable method for identifying varying DOFD for charring. National Institute of Justice, Grant # 2007-DN-BX-K240, Wood C, Simeoni A, Foley R (2012) Preliminary Results of the Effect of Carpet Pad Seams Compared to Ignitable Liquid Pours, Floor Fire Patterns in Post-Flashover Fires, Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Their study reported that the fire damage to the surface and internal cross section of the wallboard occurs progressively in the following manner: Discoloration/degradation of facing paper; Partial dehydration and discoloration/soot staining of surface layer of gypsum; Formation of anhydrous and hemihydrate layers with layers progressing through the cross section; Complete conversion of dihydrate to anhydrous and hemihydrate; Anhydrous extends through the entire cross section; Wallboard becomes catastrophically heat damaged and lacks structural integrity. The first attempt at consolidating patterns was the first edition of NFPA 921, however many misconceptions had spawned up between the early 1960s and the publication of NFPA 921 (NFPA 1992). Other penetration patterns have arisen, which dealt more with determining the direction of fire spread from top down or bottom up. Wiley, Chichester (UK), Book 1997; NFPA 2014; Gottuk and White 2008). The characteristics associated with the geometric shapes were in some cases linked to the speed of the fire, such as the angle of the V could be interpreted as the fire being fast or slow. A two-dimensional fire pattern is expected to form on the vertical surface interface (i.e. Door openings to the exterior were identified as being the most influential to damage. This causes the plume to widen horizontally in the upper layer causing damage to the intersecting surfaces. Engineering Guide, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Maryland (USA), Shanley J, Alletto W, Corry R, Herndon J, Kennedy P, Ward J (1997) The United States Fire Administration (USFA) Program for the Study of Fire Patterns. Forensic science is defined as the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system, including both criminal and civil actions (Houck and Siegel 2006). (2010)). Additional comparison and control samples were generated using ignitable liquid pours that achieved post-flashover conditions without use of the burner, but with the burner in place to maintain test consistency. Cue 6-increased area and magnitude of damage around gypsum wallboard seams. The use of 2 springs running parallel to each other allows for equal pressure on each side of the tool (Fig. The rooms were instrumented with heat flux gauges, thermocouples and gas sampling probes. Fire plumes against wall surfaces have shown to have moderate heat fluxes ranging from 40 to 80kW/m2, while heat fluxes measured in tests with objects immersed in diffusion flames range between 75 and 200kW/m2 Heskestad (1982); (Qian and Saito 1992; Dillon 1998; Lattimer 2008). Department of Justice, USA, Riahi S, Beyler C (2011) Measurement and Prediction of Smoke Deposition from a Fire Against a Wall. Additional file 1 outlining the variables for all experimental tests reviewed has been developed and also provided. The damage cues evaluated for plume-generated damage included: Cue 1-loss of mass to fuel is consistent with damage to affected surface. The tool used constant force springs to ensure an even, consistent pressure is applied at all times regardless of the user. Fire investigation texts describe the characteristics of the lines of demarcation associated with a plume-generated pattern as a progression through triangular, columnar and conical patterns. In the Ngu study, a series of power law correlation plots were developed between the calcination of gypsum wallboard and the total heat exposure for various types and thicknesses of the material (2004). Section 2, Ch. The Posey study reported that an investigator could visibly identify subtle color changes in individually cut cross-sections of the wallboard and prescribe the DOFD associated with the color changes. (0.91m2.1m). 1982; Mealy et al. Preliminary results indicated the ability to generate similar although not identical floor burn patterns between carpet pad seams and ignitable liquid pours (Figs. An upholstered sofa and upholstered chair were located in adjacent corners across the room from each other with a coffee table in between. The conical fire pattern theory evolved into a more systematized manner by the Kennedys (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Clean burn damage also occurred along the wall near the doorway opening in the fire with the longest full room involvement burning duration. These included that soot deposition can be used to aid in the area of origin determination and that the clean burn area size was proportional to the fire size (Wolfe et al. Several researchers supported this analysis but questioned the practical application of such a method (Schroeder 1999; Kennedy et al. Fire patterns are formed when the products of combustion come into contact with a vertical or horizontal surface such as a wall, floor, ceiling, or home furnishing. When the flame plume has not intersected the ceiling, heat fluxes along the ceiling surface near the centerline of a plume have been recorded to range between 80 and 100kW/m2 within 01m radial distance, while heat fluxes between 1.0 and 1.6m radial distances ranges between 10 and 70kW/m2 (Dillon 1998; Lattimer and Sorathia 2003). Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, New York, NY, pp 129139, Taroni F, Bozza S, Aitken C (2005) Decision analysis in forensic science. The literature was received from different databases, primarily ScienceDirect (2012), International Symposium on Fire Investigations conference proceedings, Fire and Arson Investigator-Journal for the International Association of Arson Investigators and fire investigation textbooks. A survey was conducted to evaluate the proficiency of professional fire investigators at determining the area of origin when provided with photographs and measurable data from a test (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). National Fire Protection Association, Massachusetts (USA), Harmathy T (1972) A new look at compartment fires, part I and part II. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. A ceiling jet is formed by the intersection of the plume with the ceiling, which will cause greater heat to be transferred first to the ceiling surface and later to the intersecting wall surfaces. 2006; Hicks et al. 1997; Hicks et al. Interpretation of the causal factors for the generation of the fire patterns was next appraised. In this study, a DOFD scale was developed as a ranking system to reflect the varying degrees of visible fire damage to gypsum wallboard based on its response to heat exposure and visible damage indicators. Upper layer gases inside the compartment are driven by density differences due to their higher temperature and lower density. walls, ceiling, contents) within a compartment. 2023 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. Learn. The further the fuel item burning was from the wall surface, the lines of demarcation would be more subtle in contrast and would be more round in angle in the shape of a U. Kennedy and Kennedy (1985) were also the first to propose that damage would be in the shape of a triangular, columnar, or conical shape after the flame plume had intersected a wall surface within a compartment. 3). The pointer theory was proffered as a system of determining the point of origin of a fire by tracing its path back to its sourcethe system is based on the fact that fires normally travel by feeding on flammables. The only point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Hoffmann J, Hoffman D, Kroll E, Kroll M (2003) Full Scale Tests of Television Sets and Electronic Appliances. 1997). Average velocities of natural ventilation flows through windows have been recorded between 0.5 and 1.0m/s (1.14.4 mph) depending on the sill height and elevation of the opening within the wall (Kerber 2010; Kerber and Walton 2005; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). Google Scholar, DSM-IV-TR (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Both of these misconceptions have fallen into disrepute and are no longer prevalent within the current profession (Bieber 2014). The greater the distance between the base of the plume and the surface of the wall or content surface will result in a substantially decreased heat flux to the surface (Qian and Saito 1992). (2008)) noted that the lines of demarcation throughout the compartment would descend in elevation dependent on the header depth and type of opening, except the line of demarcation would descend lower in corners and ascend near ventilation openings. Most of the studies conducted on calcination are limited in their examination of gypsum wallboard variations. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The ventilation of the compartment for suppression is a common activity by fire department personnel, typically performed by opening doors and windows. Wood and gypsum wallboard (drywall) were the only materials that had sufficient literature to review in this context. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64(1):3747, Custer R, Wright C (1984) Open Windows and Thermal Inversions may Complicate a Fire Investigation. Since the beginning of fire investigations, the focus on how to determine the area of origin for a fire was to try and use damage to work backwards in an attempt to recreate the development of the fire within the investigators mind. 1997; Gorbett et al. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) documented many of the myths about using the visible appearance of damage to identify arson with the visible appearance of char being one of the predominant misconceptions (Boudreau et al. The bulk of this research can be found within the SFPE Engineering Guide, Assessing Flame Radiation to External Targets from Pool Fires (SFPE 1999). Investigators work backward from the outer lines, examining everything in the fire's path for clues to the direction in which the fire was moving. A hypothesis of pseudo chimney effect is provided. Two 15ft by 15ft (4.57m4.57m) structures with a ceiling height of 7ft (2.13m) were tested. In this text, it is stated that as heat marks begin to form at the top of a room as a result of the hot air that rises from the firethese marks get lower and lower on the wall. From this work, the researchers used gravimetric measurements of these filters to demonstrate and validate an analytical model for smoke deposition based on thermophoresis. The characteristics that are proposed here include the type, magnitude, direction and proximity (e.g. This area of damage opposite the door had angled lines of demarcation that extended from the floor to the ceiling. The average velocity of natural buoyancy driven flows or natural ventilation through the bottom of a door during ventilation-controlled conditions is approximately 1.52.0m/s (3.44.4 mph) (Kerber 2010; Quintiere and McCaffrey 1980). Figure 1 is a schematic representation of how such a pattern is created, and Figure 2 shows a triangle-shaped pattern produced by a test fire. 2003). Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most common method of establishing arson. The loss of mass from a material is typically dependent on the material and the exposure to heating. The fourth part of the review focuses on the practice of using damage in fire investigation to assist in determining the area of fire origin. NFPA 921 further lists that fire patterns can be classified by their generation or causal relationship to the fire dynamics by providing the following classes: plume-generated patterns, ventilation-generated patterns, hot gas layer-generated patterns, full-room involvement-generated patterns and suppression-generated patterns (NFPA 2014 ). The fire is generally regarded as well-ventilated when values of <0.30.5. A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. NFPA 921 (NFPA 2014) provides some generic guidance regarding the changes in visible appearance to gypsum wallboard in response to heating, but no formal scale had been proposed. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 1618, Maryland (USA), Mann D, Putaansuu N (2009) Studies of the Dehydration/Calcination of Gypsum Wallboard. As the fire continues to grow, the pattern becomes . Cue 4-width of base of damage is approximately the width of the fuel item and not greater than two times the width of the fuel item. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. Developing a process for the objective identification of areas requiring further attention during fire investigation that is universally accepted by the community is recommended to increase the reliability and accuracy of fire origin determinations. Therefore, the fire effect itself may provide a basis for determining what degree of heat flux and/or duration is required to cause the effect. Test. (2004) had flames resulting from a lack of mixing within the compartment, which has also been identified in compartments with combustible linings (Drysdale 2011). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. \) This relationship points out that there are higher gas temperatures reached in the fuel-controlled burning but the duration of burning is shorter because much of the heat energy is transferred out of the room by the air/fire gas exchange (Drysdale 2011). J Forensic Sci 50(4):894905, Taroni F, Aitken C, Garbolino P, Biedermann A (2006) Bayesian Networks and Probabilistic inference in Forensic Science (Statistics in Practice). The first published fire pattern tests was in 1984 (Custer and Wright 1984). Flashcards. 6). 7, 8 and 9). The combustion within this compartment is of a high efficiency and the yields of soot and carbon monoxide (CO) are low (Pitts 1994). Fire effects are the physical or chemical changes that occur to different materials when exposed to the byproducts of combustion (e.g. [1] The baby will gain the strength in its legs to be able to support itself and walk (which is the left top of the U), but it then grows larger, and the strength in its legs becomes less than required to support itself (the bottom of the U), but then the baby's leg strength increases again which gives it the ability to support itself again (the right top of the U). This is the reason that many fire investigation texts commonly refer to fire moving up and outward (DeHaan and Icove 2011; Kennedy 1959; Kennedy (1977); Kirk 1969; Rethoret 1945). Paper presented at InterFlam99. [3], This U-shaped curve is different from the other types of skill development because this skill has an artistic rating with it, which means there could be differences in opinion, but in studies where children, adult artists, and non-artist adults were all given the same directions to draw a self portrait, the children's and the artists' were the closest of the three to depicting the face when picked by an outside group. 2006). As this smoke collides with cooler surfaces, it may deposit out of the heated gases onto wall, ceiling and content surfaces. In this work, the authors outlined a system that described char as being on a range from Number 0 Char up to Number 10 Char, with number 10 char as representing the greatest level of damage. fire effects); Identifying clusters and trends of damage (i.e. Drywall repairs, as well as tape and mud between drywall seams or the lack of this material may alter the observations of damage in these areas and will need to be considered. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. However, fire investigators currently use their visual interpretation to give vague descriptions on the varying degrees of damage when reporting their findings. A "U" shaped time line is created of the skills development. As such, a subsection on testing is first presented to describe all fire pattern tests conducted, not just those evaluating the current use of the term. A U-shaped burn pattern found on the top of floor joists, caused by fire burning down through the floor. truncated cone patterns. 1. 2010). Magnitude refers to the degree of damage to the material. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Monograph 179, Gaithersburg, MD, Posey E, Posey J (1983) Using Calcination of Gypsum Wallboard to Reveal Burn Patterns. On how to identify a fire pattern Generation top down or bottom up the of! Byproducts of combustion ( e.g 1 outlining the variables for all experimental reviewed. 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